General History 

Introduction
Human combat is as old as human beings themselves. The first men must have had to defend themselves against animals in the 'instinctive fight for survival'. The Bible informs us of many illustrations of when there was conflict among men with led to fighting. In fact only the second generation of man was responsible for violence when Cain murdered his brother Abel. As man multiplied and as the chief social unit has always been the family, awareness of blood relationship led to feuds between clans. The Bible tells us that when Abraham heard that Lot, his brother's son, was a prisoner after the war in the Vale of Siddim he armed his people and went off to liberate Lot. As agriculture developed, men kept domestic cattle, lived in settled communities with highly organized and complex structures. One class in this society which now grew up was the warrior class, and men made for themselves weapons both for self defence and for attacking enemies. This warrior class, together with the religious class, the priests, formed the ruling element in human society.

In addition to the ancient practice of fighting between man and man, we find in many societies a highly sophisticated ritual, a branch of fighting, designed to represent the preservation or service of a god or gods. With the development of modified and improved weapons, elaborate rules of procedure for these rituals were formulated, and the foundations were laid of practices and techniques which still persist today.

The Art of Unarmed Combat
Europe
At the first Olympic Games (in 776 B.C.) there existed an event called the Pankration. This was a form of all-in combat, and by the time Greece was overrun by the legions of Rome, it had developed into the two modern sports of boxing and wrestling. The techniques used in the Pankration included punching, kicking, throwing and holding; but since the Pankration the art of unarmed combat in the west has been divided into two main streams. One of them, boxing, lays chief emphasis on punching, the other, wrestling, on throwing and holding; the rules of each sport are formulated with these primary characteristics fixedly in mind.

India
It is more than likely that the influence of these European techniques of fighting spread into Asia, following the invasion of Alexander the Great into India (336-323 B.C.). These influences would have been amalgamated into the indigenous forms of combat. The Indian fist-arts in particular also show some Persian influence. The influence of some of these techniques, after they had been adopted in India, spread further throughout Asia in the wake of the Buddhist missionaries. Thus, for example, in Thailand, Thai-style boxing evolved, and in Java the fist-art called Penchac. The history books are replete with anecdotal stories of these Buddhist missionaries and their encounters with various leaders.

China
 The Indian martial art was introduced into China as one of the Buddhist practices, necessary in order to preserve health. T'ai Chi Chuan ('the fist-art of China') was developed by blending the Indian style with the ancient Chinese fist-art. The founder of Zen Buddhism, Bodhi Dharma, being of royal blood, was instructed in the martial arts of India from his childhood. Invited to China by the emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty (c. A.D. 520), he traveled there, where he undertook the form of meditation known as 'nine years facing the wall' at Shaolin-szu. Having founded the Zen sect (A.D. 557) at the age of twenty six, he taught his disciples the arts of the preservation of health*, the eighteen ways of Lo-Han, the I-Hu-Ching, and the Hsi-Sui-Ching, all of which had a marked influence on Chinese theories of fighting methods.
* It is reported by traditional history that he taught his disciples to help them over come the rigours of a spiritually devoted life. It is said that as he used to be lecturing them on esoteric Buddhist doctrine in the extreme early morning the disciples would be falling asleep through exhaustion. These exercises, principally martial in nature, became the foundation for the Shaolin styles of combat made so famous by various modern outlets.

(a) Kakuteijitsu (Chiao Ti Shu)
Kakuteijitsu is principally Chinese style wrestling. During the so-called `Spring-Autumn period' (770-481 B.C.), and the period of civil wars (480-222 B.C.) there existed various arts of fighting, among them was the popular Kakuteijitsu. These combat arts were highly valued among the noble classes of China. During the Tsin (221-207 B.C.) and the Han dynasties (208-206 B.C.) the Chinese emperors, particularly Shia Huang Ti (the first Tsin emperor) and the Han emperor Liang Wu Ti patronized Kakuteijitsu, which soon spread among both the military and the common people, as a sport, with the beneficial result that the techniques were gradually improved. Kakuteijitsu in the Han period became known as Kaiko and in 1558 A.D. a Chinese named Ch'en Yuan Yun went over to Japan and lived at Shokokuji in Edo (now Tokyo), where he initiated the Japanese into the mysteries of Kakuteijitsu. Today Kaiko is chiefly popular in Po Ting, in Ho Buk province, and it is known as Hotei (Po Ting) Kaiko (K'uai Chiao). When the Mongols invaded China during the Yue period (1206-1368), they brought with them Mongolian wrestling, and this form of athletic art mingled with Kakuteijitsu and eventually became widespread. During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), however, people came to value technique and speed, and to despise mere physical strength, which the Mongols, on the other hand, emphasized.

(b) Kenpo (fist-art)
Originally Kenpo was called Kenyu or Gigeki (`art of attack'). At that time it was said: `Gigeki is for the military class and Kakuteijitsu for the people'. In ancient times, Gigeki was highly valued, and became extremely popular during the Han dynasty. Gigeki was fairly similar in origin to Kakuteijitsu, and emphasized strength, but lacked the speed which was developed later in Kenpo. Kenpo probably developed from ancient Kakuteijitsu, just as boxing came from the Pankration.
Of all the fist arts of China, Taikyokuken is the most popular today, and has also had an important effect upon the martial arts of Okinawa through China. Taikyokuken has had such a considerable influence upon modern karate that it is desirable to consider it here in more detail.

(c) Taikyokuken (T'ai Chi Ch'uan)
Taikyokuken, founded at about the time of the end of the Ming dynasty and the beginning of the Chin dynasty, has a history of some three hundred years. At that time their were a great number of fist-arts and styles of fighting developed in different schools all over China, all with their various merits and demerits. During the Ming dynasty, the great general Ch'i Chi-Kuang (1528-1587), combined all the fist-arts of sixteen ancient and modern schools to produce his Thirty-two zei of Kenkyo, i.e. thirty-two fist positions, making them the basis of a standard style of fighting. Half a century later, at the end of the Ming dynasty, General Ch'en Wang-T'ing, having studied and selected fist-arts from every school, perfected Taikyokuken, in which he adopted twenty-nine of Ch'i Chi-Kuang's Thirty-two zei.

To illustrate how contentious the history of the martial arts can be it has been discovered that there exists a claim by some modern historians that Ch'en Wang-T'ing was not whom historians claim him to be. In an article written on 9th June 1980 in China's 'Physical Education Newspaper', Gu Liu-sheng, one of China's leading martial arts writers, states that he had at one time mistakenly believed that the Chen Wang-ting of Chen clan of Henan Province had been an imperial censor (a high ranking post in Imperial China), but later found that he had only been a garrison soldier in his local county. For many years Gu said he was unable to rectify his mistake because of the activities of 'the Gang of Four'.

Next, there is the evidence of the famous martial arts historian Wu Tu-nan, who was born in 1885, who practiced Tai Chi since he was a child and who practiced in Peking until his death in the mid 1980's. His book describes how he went to the Chen clan village in Wen County, Henan Province, in 1917 to research into the origins of Tai Chi Chuan. His guide was Chen Xian, the village schoolmaster, and the only educated person in the village. Chen told him that the Chen Family martial art was Pao Chui (Cannon Punch) which was connected with Shaolin Boxing (the Shaolin Temple is also in Henan Province) and which had been passed down from one generation to another of the Chen clan.

One story claims that one autumn, after the harvesting, when Chen Chang-xing (1771-1853) was teaching his sons, relatives and students the Chen Family Pao Chui, a stranger who had been watching their practice laughed out loud. Realizing his discourtesy, the stranger turned to leave, but Chen Chang-xing pursued him and grabbed his shoulder. The stranger turned, throwing Chen to the ground. Chen got up and begged to be accepted as a student. The stranger was named Chiang Fa and he promised Chen Chang-xing that he would return after three years to teach him Tai Chi Chuan.

Three years later Chiang returned and Chen Chang-xing was taught all the secrets of Tai Chi Chuan after going through a formal ceremony to become his disciple. However, as the Chen clan considered this a disgrace for the Chen family they forbade him henceforth to teach Chen Family Pao Chui, though he was permitted to teach Tai Chi Chuan. Other members of the Chen clan confirmed this record of events to Wu Tunan. Chen Xian then took Wu to Chen Wang-ting's grave where the inscription showed him to have been only an elementary school graduate and not a military strategist and imperial censor as is claimed in some books on Taikyokuken.

It is unfortunate that certain people seem to take a delight in casting aspersions upon the validity of any traditional history [ e.g. The authenticity of Shakespeare's works etc.] But whatever the actual history of Taikyokuken is, it is true to say that Taikyokuken is the result of the union of the theories of fist-arts from many schools with ancient Tao-yin shu (physical exercises, consisting of bending and stretching, lying on one's back or front) and T'u-na shu (the art of abdominal breathing) both of which are ancient Chinese arts for the preservation of health, and in adaption Ching-lo hsueh-shuo (the theory of exercising the internal organs to promote free circulation of blood), which is a basic principle of Chinese medicine. Synthesizing these elements: fist-arts, the techniques of preserving health and of breathing, backed by medical theory, Taikyokuken unites control of consciousness, breathing, and movement in practice.

(d) Modification of Taikyokuken
Originally a fist-art, concerned with practical unarmed combat, Taikyokuken also contains elements for the preservation of health and fitness as well as the power of successful destruction in attack. However, the development of firearms and other modern weapons about a century ago made fist fighting of less value in war, and consequently Taikyokuken has come to be used chiefly as an art for the preservation of health and fitness. Today the most popular style of Taikyokuken is the Yo style, which Yang Lu-Ch'an (1799-1872) first introduced in Peking. Yang Lu-Ch'an and his second son, Pan Hou, taught it to Ch'i Jen, who initiated Wu Chien-Chuan (1870-1942), in mastery of this style. Taikyokuken in Go style, is the second most popular style after the Yo style. As Taikyokuken has many aspects and is very adaptable, anyone, man or woman, young or old, can practise it in any way, depending on the objective in mind. Not only does the present Chinese government recommend Taikyokuken as an important subject in the martial arts, but it is also used in medical treatment and physical education.

Okinawa
Karate (Empty hand)
(a) History
Before the twelfth century little is known of the primitive community in Okinawa. But in 1314 there is evidence that three powerful warlords were in conflict. By 1429 -- more than a century later -- the Lord of Nakayama Castle, Syo Hasshi, had united all the main islands by the sword. This period corresponds to the Ming dynasty in China and the Muromachi period in Japan. Throughout the course of this period there was extensive trade with China, and in 1392 Chinese immigrants were permitted to settle. Relations with Japan were also active. It was during this period that the Japanese pirate Wako infested the seas around Okinawa.

Although the martial arts of Japan and China influenced those of Okinawa, they were not very popular, as their had been peace under the thriving Buddhist culture since the political union of the islands by Syo Hasshi. In 1609, the islands of Ryukyu were easily conquered by troops dispatched by the Satsuma clan in Japan. Ryukyu had become a pawn in the political power games of the emerging shogunate and the rebelliously independent and aggressive Satsuma. The Shogun decided to send them to Ryukyu to vent their aggression away from the fledgling shogunate he was establishing to rule Japan for the next two and a half centuries. Japan had just emerged out of its "Age of War" and it didn't want to return into it due to the rash aggression of a few wayward clans. The Satsuma samurai encountered little direct opposition to their invasion. The prince of Okinawa was taken as a hostage and a police force was established at Naha (the capital of Okinawa) to superintend internal affairs. The military class was banned and all arms were confiscated. For this reason the combative techniques of Okinawa, which have been handed down to the present day, the stick, the club [and simple farming implements - nunchaku (rice-flail), sai and sickle], and of course karate -- the empty hand.

(b) The name Karate
Karate was originally called `Tode' (T'ang hand) or just `Te' (hand) in Okinawa. Three main forms of Te were prevalent depending on which city it was taught. Taking the name of the cities involved they were referred to as Naha-te; Tomari-te and Shuri-te (see chart below). It is recorded that a certain Karate instructor in Okinawa, Nagashige Hanagusuku, used the Japanese characters Karate (empty hand) instead on T'ang in August 1905. In Japan, the instructor Gichin Funakoshi changed T'ang hand to Karate around 1930. Now, the Japanese character `Kara' (or Ku) symbolizes the essence of Budo (the martial way), which is to defend oneself against an enemy with nothing more than empty hands. Those who practise this form of unarmed combat should always empty their minds, clearing them of selfish and evil thoughts, as `an empty valley conveying sound'. It is said in Buddhism: `Form is emptiness. Emptiness is form.'. If one observes the phenomena of the universe, everything is empty. Emptiness is indeed the truth of everything. Although their are various Oriental martial arts, such as aikijujitsu, fighting with sword or spear, archery, or dueling with cudgels, the basis of them all is the same as that of Karate: However, Karate is the most basic of all the martial arts, for it teaches fighting with no more weapons than a man is born with, and follows the teaching of emptiness in Zen Buddhism.

Schools of Karate
[1] Shito School (founder Kenwa Mabuni)
The name of this school comes from Japanese characters of instructors Itosu and Higaonna. It is popular chiefly in the west of Japan.

[2] Goju School (founder Chojun Miyagusuku) This derives from the same origin as the Shito school. The name is taken from the Japanese words Goken (strong fist) and Juken (soft fist). It is also popular in the west of Japan.

[3] Shotokan School (founder Gichin Funakoshi) Named after the term Funakoshi used for calligraphy: Shoto. Prevailing mainly in the east of Japan.

[4] Wado School (founder Hironori Ohtsuka) Called Wado (way of peace) in the belief that the basis of Budo (martial way) is the way of peace. Wado-Ryu Karate is a Japanese martial art founded by Hironori Ohtsuka Sensei in 1934. Ohtsuka Sensei developed -Ryu after studying the Samurai martial art of Jiu-jitsu (aikijujitsu), and Shotokan (another style of Karate). This combination, according to Ohtsuka Sensei, is a softer, more natural means of self-protection.

The full name of the style is Wado-Ryu Karate. The term Wado means "way of peace" or "way of harmony", indicating Ohtsuka Sensei's original intention to use training in Wado-Ryu as a means of solving problems in a non-violent way. Karate-Do means "way of the empty hand", as Karate is, for the most part, studied without the use of weapons. Wado-Ryu is also popular in the east of Japan.
[N.B. No inference is implied in the order presented here with regard to superiority of one style over another. Wado-Ryu is mentioned last out of politeness, as one always puts oneself last in preference to one's guests.]

(d) Introduction of Karate
1912: Ten officers of Japan's First Fleet had training in Karate for one week in Okinawa.

1920: Norimichi Yabe (instructor of the Okinawan Teacher's college) gave a demonstration of Karate in LA, U.S.A.

1921: Instructor Gichin Funakoshi introduced Karate in Tokyo.

1923: Asamoto Motobu introduced Karate into Osaka (Japan).

Japan 

Sumo
Although it has been claimed that Sumo is derived from the Chinese Kakuteijitsu it seems probable that Sumo started in Japan and developed from the ancient type of combat like the other arts of fighting. It is evident that Sumo was originally a form of combat with no holds barred, fought until one opponent knocked down the other, like the Chinese Kakuteijitsu and the Greek Pankration. For example, it is recorded that in the Yamato period, Nomino Sukune and Taimano Kehaya wrestled in the presence of the Emperor Suinin, and Sukune broke one of Kehaya's ribs and his hip bone by kicking, then proceeded to stamp him to death. However, such techniques as punching, striking and kicking were forbidden during the Naro period. Sumo has become a sport rather than a martial art in earnest. Today, Sumo is a Japanese national sport and is very popular among both professionals and amateurs alike.